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Master’s
Program in Applied Behavior Analysis
Office of
Graduate Studies
University
of South Florida
Practicum Competencies
February, 2001
Master’s
Program in Applied Behavior Analysis
Office of
Graduate Studies
University
of South Florida
Practicum
Competencies
The USF Applied
Behavior Analysis Program requires the completion of practicum activities under
the direct supervision of a Certified Behavior Analyst (CBA) who has been
approved as a field practicum supervisor.
This supervisor is required to sign off on an official program
competency form verifying completion of each activity. The student should acquire a 3-ring binder
in which are placed: (1) the present documents, and (2) a file system for the
physical documentation of each activity.
This constitutes evidence that the practicum activities have been
completed. All pertinent records, such
as data sheets and graphs, should be saved for the growing portfolio of
evidence. The official competency form
should be placed as a cover sheet at the beginning of each section to briefly
summarize how the objective was achieved.
This should occur prior to obtaining the signature of the supervising
CBA. All of this activity is under the
governance of the USF ABA Program Coordinator and the student’s Major
Professor.
It should be
understood that the following directions for competencies are suggestions that
narrow the focus of practicum activities.
However, there is latitude in exactly how the response to each
competency is fashioned—as long as the on-site Practicum Supervisor
agrees. Considerable flexibility is
necessary as each student will have different opportunities and
situations. Students may join with other
students on many activities, especially when reliability checks are necessary. In these cases, both (or several) students
may achieve a competency together. The
critically important result is that ALL students acquire the technical skills
described by the competency.
Definition of
terminology varies somewhat in the field of applied behavior analysis. The Program Coordinator or a student’s Major
Professor can provide guidance in accomplishing each activity. When uncertain about the definition of terminology,
a student should go to the following summary/comparison of terminology on the
WEB:
When there
are specific questions about procedures, one text used in the ABA Program is Applied
Behavior Analysis by Cooper, Heron & Heward (1987). Consult the ABA Program Coordinator or the
Major Professor for interpretation, if necessary.
All
students should accomplish these objectives at a steady rate throughout the
two-year program--not leave them until they registration for practicum hours
has occurred. Some courses may
require the accomplishment of projects.
When these projects fit the competency requirements, they can be counted
using the course instructor’s signature.
The
Faculty Steering Committee (FSC) has assigned an estimated number of points for
each practicum competency. Each point
is comparable to a minimum of one hour of effort. Therefore, 120 points is estimated to be equivalent to
approximately 120 hours of effort. It
may take more or less time for any given activity, but the accumulation of the
Steering Committee’s point assignment will be used to calculate total
accumulated effort. Add the total
number of points assigned to the competencies which have signatures to
determine progress.
Competencies
marked with an asterisk (*) are required for successful completion of
the program’s practicum experiences. In
addition to completing the required competencies, a total number of practicum
points must be achieved using a selection from the remaining (non-asterisk)
competencies. A student may choose
among the optional competencies to complete the total points required by the
program. There are 51 required
competencies that total 125 points and 20 optional competencies that total 61
points. Therefore, if a student completes all competencies, the student will
have completed 71 competencies and 186 points.
After
completing a competency, the student should complete the Practicum Competency
Form (Appendix 2) and obtain the signature of the CBA or BCBA who supervised
the completion of the competency.
Additionally, the competency and the initials of the supervisor should
be listed on the Practicum Competency Log (see Appendix 3). It is suggested
that a personal cumulative graph be used by each student to show the number of
practicum competency points for which signatures have been obtained. This graph should have the total number of
points required at the right side with a cumulative line of progress beginning
at the left side. This graph should be
kept in a prominent place to remind the student of this program
requirement. The Practicum Supervisor
may occasionally ask students to submit a copy of this program graph to stay
aware of student progress. Therefore, when
a student’s practicum has been completed, the student will have the following
documentation: a Practicum Competency
Form for each competency completed; one Practicum Competency Log; and a
cumulative graph to show completion of the competencies.
Students
should always secure permission prior to the implementation of any procedure
with children and adults. Compliance
with ethical standards for the practice of behavior analysis is necessary when
working with individuals in accomplishing the competencies (e.g., permission
from the agency, written consent secured form individual or legal guardian for
overcorrection and punishment procedures, careful assessment of any potential
risk to the individual prior to the application of a procedure).
The
competencies are divided into the following sections: Behavioral Assessment; Functional Relationships; Establishing,
Strengthening, and Weakening Behavior; Generalization and Maintenance of
Intervention Effects; Transfer of Technology; and Complex Techniques.
Table of Contents
I. Behavioral
Assessment
A.
Descriptive Analysis
OR Functional Assessment
*Competency 1 - Conduct
a functional assessment (also referred to as Descriptive Analysis) 4 pts
*Competency
2 - Use direct and indirect measures of behavior and the
environment
(2 pts)
*Competency 3 -
Calculate reliability of direct and indirect observation (3 pts)
*Competency 4 –
Identification and measurement of relevant setting events
(2 pts)
Accuracy of Measurement
*Competency 5 -
Construct behavioral definitions of behavior described in vernacular terms (2
pts.)
*Competency 6 -
Evaluate observer reactivity (3 pts)
Competency 7 -
Evaluate treatment drift (5 pts)
Competency 8 -
Identify sequence effects (4 pts)
Calibration of Measurement
Procedures
Competency 9 -
Calibrate a measurement procedure (3 pts)
*Competency 10 -
Evaluate accuracy, agreement, calibration, and evaluation of observer drift. (3
pts.)
Data Recording Methods
*Competency 11- Identify
and measure permanent products (2 pts)
*Competency 12 - Employ
whole interval and partial interval recording
techniques (3 pts.)
*Competency 13- Employ
various time sampling techniques (3 pts)
*Competency 14 - Measure
latency (1 pt)
*Competency 15 - Create
codes and use them to observe (2 pts)
Competency 16 - Employ
measurement in free-operant and fixed-trial procedures for conditioning,
measurement, and evaluation (4 pts)
*Competency 17 - Conduct
continuous and sample observations (4 pts)
*Competency 18 - Measure
interresponse times (2 pts)
Reliability
*Competency 19 -
Calculate reliability interval-by-interval and by
scored-interval/unscored-intervals (3 pts)
II. Functional Analysis (Research Designs)
*Competency 20 - Employ
the reversal design (4 pts)
*Competency
21 - Employ multiple baseline across participants and
situations (5 pts)
*Competency 22-
Determine appropriate steps and apply them in a changing criterion design (3
pts)
*Competency 23 - Apply
the alternating treatments design (3 pts)
Competency 24 - Employ a
multiple-probe design (3 pts)
Competency 25 - Given a
case in point, identify and employ the most appropriate experimental design (5
pts)
Competency
26 - Do a systematic and a direct replication of a specific
procedure
(1 pt)
*Competency 27 - Given data
to plot, construct graphs using ABA
conventions (1 pt)
*Competency 28 - Apply
measures of discovering trends in data (3 pts)
*Competency 29 -
Correctly identify points in data path that are appropriate for
condition changes (1 pt)
*Competency
30 - Plot an imperfect correlation of data using a scatter
plot (1 pt)
*Competency 31 - Employ
semi logarithmic charts (2 pts)
Competency 32 -
Construct a split-middle line of progress (1 pt)
Competency
33 - Calculate a quarter-intersect line of progress (1
pt)
III. Establishing, Strengthening, and Weakening Behavior
A. Ethical Considerations
*Competency
34 - Demonstrate person-centered planning in intervention
development (2 pts)
*Competency 35 - Conduct
a functional assessment prior to developing
intervention (4 pts for Competency
1)
*Competency 36 - Obtain
consent from the client or client-surrogate prior to implementing intervention
(2 pts)
*Competency 37 - Use the
least restrictive procedure(s) necessary to be effective in intervention (2 pts)
B.
Behavior Change
Procedures: Antecedent Procedures
Stimulus control
*Competency 38 – Incidental
teaching (2 pts)
*Competency 39: Establish stimulus control (generalization
and discrimination) (1 pt) *Competency 40: Show response generalization. (2 pts)
Competency 41: Demonstrate the generalization
gradient. (3 pts)
Competency 42: Show concept formation (i.e., generalization
within and across stimulus classes). (3
pts)
Motivational variables
*Competency 43: Use an establishing operation. (2 pts)
Multiple causation
Competency 44: Establish/demonstrate multiple variable
control. (4 pts)
C. Behavior
Change Procedures: Consequence
Procedures
Reinforcement
*Competency 45 -
Demonstrate positive and negative reinforcement (2 pts)
*Competency 46 –
Demonstrate the extinction procedure and note effects. (2 pts)
Reinforcement Schedules
*Competency
47 - Demonstrate appropriate thinning of reinforcement
Schedules
(2 pts)
*Competency 48-
Demonstrate use of limited hold reinforcement
contingency (1 pt)
*Competency 49 -
Determine appropriate intermittent reinforcement schedules for maintenance (1
pt)
Competency 50 - Apply
DRO, DRI, DRA, and DRL schedules and graph the
results (2 pts)
*Competency 51 - Apply
relevant schedules of reinforcement (2 pts)
Shaping
*Competency 52 –
Correctly use differential reinforcement while shaping behavior
(1 pt)
Punishment
*Competency 53- Apply
punishment procedure using the least restrictive procedure necessary, and
record primary and secondary effects (2 pts)
Competency 54 - Employ
time out procedures appropriately and measure the
effects (3 pts)
Competency 55- Apply
response cost procedures; note effects
(2 pts)
Competency 56 - Employ
overcorrection (4 pts)
Respondent Conditioning
Competency 57 -
Establish a conditioned stimulus in the respondent paradigm and/or show the
extinction of an unconditioned or conditioned response (3 pts)
IV. Generalization and Maintenance of Intervention Effects
*Competency 58-
Demonstrate the use of natural contingencies in intervention
planning (2 pts)
*Competency 59 -
Demonstrate the use of reinforcement and procedure fading after the
establishment of behavior to facilitate maintenance of intervention effects (2
pts)
*Competency 60 -
Demonstrate use of diverse training procedures in intervention planning and
implementation (2 pts)
*Competency 61 -
Demonstrate the incorporation of functional mediators in intervention planning
and implementation (2 pts)
V. Transfer of Technology
*Competency 62 -
Demonstrate use of competency-based training to disseminate intervention
planning and implementation procedures to multiple providers /
caregivers (4 pts)
VI. Complex Techniques
*Competency 63 - Use
reinforcer sampling techniques (4 pts)
*Competency 64 -
Construct contingency contracts, implement them, and note
effects (5 pts)
*Competency 65 - Apply
group-oriented behavior management
techniques (5 pts)
*Competency 66 - Conduct
informal and structured interviews and describe the advantages and
disadvantages (3 pts)
*Competency 67- Employ
self-management procedure (5 pts)
Competency
68 - Construct a token economy, implement, and evaluate it (5
pts)
Competency 69 - Chain
behavior using backward and forward chaining
methods (2 pts)
*Competency 70 - Develop
imitative behavior (3 pts)
Competency 71 - Apply
the good behavior game (3 pts)
I.
Behavioral
Assessment
A.
Descriptive Analysis OR
Functional Assessment
*Competency 1. Conduct a
functional assessment (also referred to as Descriptive Analysis)
Descriptive Analysis (as used
in the Florida Task List and Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities Statements for
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition, March, 1997)
Definition: a behavioral assessment method that provides
an organized, conceptually sound and efficacious method for obtaining
descriptive and quantitative data, which are essential to the decision to
intervene, where to intervene, how to intervene and the identification of
functional relationships. It is used to obtain and organize relevant
information about behavior and its circumstances; to develop hypotheses
regarding the need for or alternatives to behavior analysis services, the locus
of intervention and functional relationships based on the information obtained;
and to provide useful information for evaluating interventions on an on-going
basis.
AND
Functional
Assessment (as used in Miltenberger, 2001)
Definition: The process of generating information on the
events preceding and following the behavior in an attempt to determine which
antecedents and consequences are reliably associated with the occurrence of the
behavior. Includes indirect assessment
through interviews and questionnaires, direct observation of the antecedents
and consequences in the natural environment, and functional analysis methods
involving the manipulation of environmental events.
NOTE: The terms “descriptive analysis” and “functional assessment” are
used interchangeably in the field of behavior analysis.
Directions: Select an individual with a problem
behavior. Collect data via both
indirect and direct methods to determine the controlling variables for the
behavior and the desired appropriate replacement behavior. Form a hypothesis concerning the controlling
variables. Provide evidence using
direct measures that the hypothesis generated was related functionally to the
problem behavior.
FSC estimated investment of
practicum effort: 4 pts
Apply Direct and indirect
measurement
*Competency
2: Use direct and indirect measures
of behavior and the environment.
Definition: Direct measurement practices are those in
which the events measured are the same as those about which conclusions will be
drawn, for example, number of head-bangs, incidents of stuttering, or frequency
of appropriate play behaviors. Indirect
measurement practices are those in which the events measured are not the same
as those about which conclusions will be drawn. Outcome measures, for example, lawns mowed, rooms cleaned,
problems worked correctly, etc., are examples of indirect measurement. Direct measurement has the advantage of
providing information about who exhibited the behaviors, but indirect measures
may be much less expensive or all that are feasible. Ratings or questionnaires are forms of indirect measures but they
are often suspect because their correspondence with data that are derived by
direct measures may be poor.
Directions: Your direct measurement competencies may
have been completed by an objective elsewhere in this list. If not, an excellent performance of this
task would be to measure the same behavior by direct and by indirect methods. Then compare the correspondence. For example, you could ask a person to take
his shopping list and tell you on a separate list the brands he is like to buy
of each item. Do this a day or two
ahead of shopping and do not show him what he told you about the brands he will
select. Then inspect the groceries when
he comes home and determine the correspondence between the indirect measure of
what he buys and the outcome measure.
You could, of course, surreptitiously observe what he takes off the
shelf in the store-this would be direct measurement. There are many other ways of accomplishing this objective.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __2___ points
*Competency 3: Calculate reliability of direct and indirect
observation.
Definition: A direct observation is one that is personally
seen (or heard) by the observer and immediately recorded. Direct measurement involves practices in
which the behavior measured is directly observed by the person evaluating it
(i.e., head-bangs, correct speech articulations, etc). Indirect measurement practices are those in
which the events measured are not the same as those about which conclusions
will be drawn. Indirect measures may be
number of problems completed, dishes washed, rooms cleaned, etc. Outcome measures are indirect. "Reliability" refers to the
consistency of measurement. In applied
behavior analysis, preferably, different observers estimate reliability by
assessing the interobserver agreement, or coefficient of agreement between two
or more independently scored records of data in the same episodes. The coefficient of agreement often is
calculated as a percentage by dividing the number of agreements by the number
of agreements plus disagreements, then multiplying the fraction by one hundred.
Agreement measures should be reported for each phase of a within subject design
when feasible. When estimating reliability of interval recording systems, if
there are many unscored intervals, only scored intervals should be included in
the calculations, or two separate percentages of agreement can calculated-one
for scored, one for unscored intervals.
Directions: Select a behavior that can be observed
directly at least several times during each session. Observe the behavior for at least three sessions (using two or
more observers). Break the sessions
into intervals. Summarize the
inter-observer agreement (reliability) by using simply the entire total
observations to calculate agreement.
Then calculate the separate percentages of agreement for scored and for
unscored intervals. Compare these ways
of calculating reliability and comment upon the possible biases of each.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: 3 points
*Competency 4: Identification and measurement of relevant
setting events.
Definition: A setting event refers to the context or
circumstance in which an environment-behavior relationship occurs. The event
changes the strengths of stimuli and responses involved in an
environment-behavior interaction.
Setting events (or contexts), include complex antecedent conditions, events
and stimulus response interactions, that exert general control over other
stimulus-response interactions. Setting events may precede and/or overlap with
other discrete stimulus-response (SD - R) relationships (e.g., noisy
surroundings could influence adversely the interaction between a work
assignment and a student's performance).
Directions: The events you manipulate can be either
antecedents or consequences. The
intimidation effect of a teacher walking into a noisy room is a setting event. How much sleep a person had is a setting
event. Abnormal social behaviors of
others are setting events. While
behavior analysis focuses upon consequence manipulation, many problems can be
solved by manipulating antecedent events without consequence manipulation. The key here is to show a functional
relationship between the setting event and the behavior.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: ___2__ point(s)
Accuracy of measurement
*Competency
5: Construct behavioral definitions
of behavior described in vernacular terms.
Definition: The verbal culture of applied situations if
full of terminology heavily laden with references to internal causation. We are said to be searching for the
"purpose" of behavior.
Children have bad behavior because they are "emotionally
disturbed." Difficulties are said
to be rooted in "cognitive processing deficits," and so on. But when practical action is necessary, we
must manipulate relevant controlling variables, which are OUTSIDE the
individual. Thus, the ability to
convert a vernacular analysis to a behavioral analysis involves replacement of
lay terms with scientific terminology that refers to variables available for
manipulation and direct analysis (e.g., variable, repertoire, probability, operant,
discriminative stimulus., etc.).
Directions: Find a recent newspaper article discussing
the kind of applied situation for which you are preparing. Make a copy of it and highlight the words
referring to behavioral problems and possible solutions. With numbers, key a second sheet to these
references and convert the newspaper writer's analysis into a behavioral
analysis. Use the terminology carefully
and suggest good solutions to the problems.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: ___2__ point(s)
*Competency 6: Evaluate observer reactivity.
Definition: Observers sometimes perform differently when
they are themselves being evaluated or observed. This is called observer reactivity. They may be more or less accurate when they are aware of being
observed.
Directions: Select a target behavior that is relatively
difficult to measure. Measure it
yourself and check your reliability with someone. Then pick a new observer for the target behavior. Construct a situation where you will be able
to observe the same behavior the new observer is watching without his or her
knowing. Schedule a couple of sessions
when the observer thinks s/he is observing alone, however, you are secretly
also observing. Then schedule several
sessions when your observer knows you are taking data also. Compare the reliability agreements between
your data with the new observer.
Comment upon your accuracy and the accuracy of your new observer. If it changed, you have demonstrated
observer reactivity.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __3___ point(s)
Competency 7: Evaluate treatment drift.
Definition: Not to be confused with observer drift,
treatment drift refers to what is often called "procedural
integrity." The independent
variable procedures applied to bring about a change in behavior may not be
delivered evenly or consistently over a period of time. In a reversal design, for example, the
second application of the treatment may in some way differ from the first
application, possibly resulting in different effects. In a multiple-baseline design, the treatment may not be precisely
in the same way to the second "element." The problem is of widespread concern in behavior analysis.
Directions: This sophisticated competency involves creating
procedures for carefully documenting the consistency of delivery of the
treatment. It may involve an extra
observer with checklist, timers, and counters that monitors treatment
application from session to session.
Evidence of consistency is presented in graphs describing critical
dimensions of treatment procedures.
Such monitoring, itself, must have reliability checks. All of this suggesting why evaluation of
treatment drift or integrity is seldom accomplished.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __5___ point(s)
Competency 8:
Identify sequence effects.
Definition: SEQUENCE EFFECTS in the behavior of a
subject may result from contact with a prior condition. A sequence effect is a situation in which
one experimental treatment phase within the experiment influences subsequent
performance during another treatment phase.
Directions: Evidence of a sequence effect is shown when
by comparing performance during an ABAB with performances during simply going
from condition A to B, or B to A. It
may also be shown using multiple baselines with alternation in one element that
is contrasted with sequences or non-sequences in another element. The satisfaction of this relatively
sophisticated competency would likely come as part of a carefully controlled
experiment (as for thesis research).
Graphs should present the contrasting data, together with an
explanation.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __4___ point(s)
Calibration of measurement
procedures
Competency 9: Calibrate a measurement procedure.
Definition: CALIBRATION is a method of evaluating the
accuracy and reliability of a measurement system and, if necessary, using the
results to improve the system so that it provides more accurate or reliable
data. ACCURACY is the extent to which
observed values approximate the "true" state of nature. The "true" value is approximated
through the use of a measurement system, which may involve coded observation sheets
or electronic devices. Calibration in
behavior analysis frequently deals with getting observers to produce more
accurate data and may involve observer training and retraining.
Directions: Train two observers to quantify a difficult
to observe dimension of behavior---one on which very high interobserver agreement
is difficult to achieve. Document
discussions you have with your observers when the records of all three are
compared. Determine where and why your
total reliability figures differ and adjust your recording/observing techniques
such that your data coincide. Keep in
mind that all observers may agree, yet the figures they agree on may not
reflect the "true" value.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __3___ point(s)
*Competency
10: Accuracy, agreement,
calibration, and evaluation of observer drift.
Definitions: RELIABILITY (often referred to as
interobserver agreement) is the consistency of measurement in applied behavior
analysis, preferably, different observers estimate reliability by assessing the
interobserver agreement, or coefficient of agreement between two or more
independently scored records of data in the same episodes. The coefficient of
agreement often is calculated as a percentage by dividing the number of
agreements by the number of agreements plus disagreements, then multiplying the
fraction by one hundred. Agreement
measures should be reported for each phase of a within subject design when
feasible. When estimating reliability
of interval recording systems, if there are many unscored intervals, only
scored intervals should be included in the calculations. Or two separate
percentages of agreement can calculated-one for scored, one for unscored
intervals. OBSERVER DRIFT is the point
at which indexes of agreement between observers begin to diverge. CALIBRATION involves training observers to
improve interobserver agreement scores, or to maintain their performance at
acceptably high levels. ACCURACY
(validity) refers to the degree to which the measurements approximate truly happened.
Directions: This competency may be acquired in
conjunction with others. The emphasis
of this competency, however, is to pick a relatively difficult behavior to
measure and show how you calibrated observer behavior. Simply obtaining high interobserver
agreement does not ensure accuracy-which is the extent to which the behavior
was truly described by the measurement.
You should observe long enough such that the disparity between observers
begins to "drift" or diverge, showing how you then recalibrated the
observers.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __3___ point(s)
Data recording methods
*Competency 11: Identify and measure permanent products.
Definitions: PERMANENT PRODUCT RECORDING is a method in
which durable products of a behavior--such as the number of windows broken,
widgets produced, homework problems handed in, rejects, percentage of test
questions correct, and so on-are assessed.
(Note: this is a method not
suited to measuring transitory behaviors).
Directions: Your materials should include a graph
showing the data you obtained from at least three sessions/days of observation
and you should have an accompanying reliability check showing the accuracy was
at least 80% (showing the method of reliability calculation).
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __2___ points
*Competency 12: Employ whole interval and partial interval
recording techniques.
Definition: Interval measurement is a strategy used in
applied behavior analysis to assess the rate of target behavior. A block of
time is selected and divided into short-equal intervals, and if the target
behavior occurs it is recorded once in an appropriate time bin. For example, a
30-minute segment of mathematics class may be divided into 10-second intervals.
Regardless of the number of responses, if the behavior occurs in a given
10-second interval, then the observer records it as a single event. Partial interval measurement is a procedure
whereby a response is recorded if it occurs at any time(s)-even
momentarily-during the interval, and not necessarily throughout the interval,
as in whole interval recording. Whole interval recording requires the response
to be emitted throughout the entire interval for its presence to be scored.
(Note: Interval measurement can be
tricky. Whether a behavior is recorded
as being present at all, or for the full interval, may give different pictures
as well as different interobserver agreements.)
Directions: Select a target behavior that occurs
relatively often during the observation session. Compose a data sheet with 10 or 20 second intervals. Record behavior with a second observer. Compare data taken over at least two or
three days (or observation sessions), calculating interobserver agreement. Then observe simultaneously with one
observer recording by whole-interval scoring and the other by partial-interval
scoring. Briefly discuss how the data
reveal bias in accuracy.
FSC estimated investment of practicum
effort: __3___ points
*Competency 13: Employ various time sampling techniques
Definition: A method of recording used mostly in applied
behavior analysis. Behavior is sampled over a long time scale. The idea is to
make observations at specified times throughout the day. For example, a patient on a psychiatric ward
may be observed every 30 minutes, as a nurse does the rounds, and instances of
psychotic talk are recorded. Time
sampling is a direct observational procedure in which the presence or absence
of specific behaviors is recorded within short uniform time intervals. (E.g.,
an observer observes for 10 seconds and records the occurrence or nonoccurrence
of a behavior during the following 5 seconds.) This procedure may continue for
a specific 30-minute period each day. Time-sampling variations include. (1)
Whole-interval time-sampling, (2) partial-interval time-sampling, and (3)
momentary time-sampling. Momentary time
sampling is a discontinuous observation procedure in which the observational
period is divided into intervals but the observer only notes the status of the
target behavior during a "moment" following the end of each
interval.
Directions: